Warrior [15] Late Roman Cavalryman AD 236-565 Read online

  CONTENTS

  HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

  Cavalry reserve of the 3rd century • Reorganisation in the 4th century • Armies of the warlords

  CHRONOLOGY

  CONDITIONS OF SERVICE

  Recruitment • Provision of horses

  TRAINING

  Conditions, pay and rations

  EQUIPMENT

  Issue and supply • Basic clothing and equipment • The shield • Cataphractarii and Clibanarii • Horse archers

  THE EXPERIENCE OF BATTLE

  Conditions, pay and rations • Skirmish tactics • Formations • The mounted warrior of the 5th-6th centuries Cavalry against infantry • The aftermath of battle

  THE SOLDIER ON CAMPAIGN

  The African campaign (AD 533—34) • Difficulties at sea • Establishing a base camp • The advance to contact • Preparing for battle • Follow-up actions

  PLACES TO VISIT

  GLOSSARY

  BIBLIOGRAPHY

  Primary sources • Secondary sources

  LATE ROMAN CAVALRYMAN AD 236-565

  HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

  The twilight of the Roman Empire saw a revolution in the way war was waged. The drilled infantryman* who had been the mainstay of Mediterranean armies since the days of the Greek hoplite, was gradually replaced by the mounted warrior. This change did not take place overnight, and in the 3rd and 4th centuries the role of the cavalryman was primarily to support the infantry; However, by the time of Justinian’s reconquest of the west, in the 6th century, the situation had been completely reversed, anti it was the infantryman who found himself in the supporting role.

  The eques, or ordinary cavalryman, was in many ways similar to his infantry counterpart. He was more likely to have been a German, Sarmatian or Hun than an Italian, and he had probably never seen Rome. He fought for pay or booty, and did not particularly feel any great loyalty or sense of duty to the empire he was defending. Unlike the infantryman, however, he formed the elite of the army, and as time progressed his equipment and status improved as that of the infantryman declined. He was the precursor of the medieval knight who was to rule the battlefield for centuries to come.

  Cavalry reserve of the 3rd century

  The 3rd century AD was a period of chaos. Civil war and economic decline had greatly weakened the Empire, at a time of increasing pressure on the frontiers. Previously the Empire had been defended primarily by infantry-based armies protecting the limes, or frontier zones. The problem with this system was that when the frontier defences were penetrated, as happened with increasing frequency in the 3rd century, there were no troops in reserve to deal with the invasion. Another problem was that such breakthroughs were often by fairly small, fast-moving bands of raiders (particularly the Goths along the Danube and the Franks and Alamanni along the Rhine): by the time temporary task forces, or vexillationes, had been drawn from the frontier defences and dispatched to the troubled areas, their foes had long since moved on.

  One of the results of this pressure on the Empire's defensive system was an increase in the cavalry arm. This was not because cavalry had proved themselves tactically superior to infantry, but rather because fast-moving cavalry had a better chance of deploying quickly to trouble-spots. The emperor Gallienus (253-68) look this one step further and created all-cavalry reserve forces, which were based at strategic locations in northern Italy, Greece and the Balkans.

  For centuries infantry had played the central role in Roman armies, with cavalry supporting them. Over the course of the late Roman period the importance of cavalry grew, and eventually it was the horseman who became the central figure in Roman armies. (Antonius Pius relief, 2nd century AD)

  These reserves were probably created by withdrawing the old 120-man cavalry detachments from the legions and brigading them into new units called equites promoti These in turn were supplemented by light skirmishers recruited in Illyricum (equites dalmatae) and North Africa (equites mauri), possibly together with heavier units of equites scutarii, Eventually these new units came to be collectively referred to as equites illyriciani or as vexillatio, a term which had originally meant a detachment drawn from the frontier legions. The new vexillationes also enjoyed higher status than the old auxiliary cavalry. A unit at full strength was about 500 men.

  The central cavalry reserve was instrumental in the success of the Illyrian emperors (Claudius, Aurelian, Probus, Carus and Diocletian) in restoring order in the latter part of the 3rd century. However, in the relative calm of Diocletian's reign (284-305) there was a partial return to a forward defensive strategy along the frontiers. Diocletian probably maintained a small central field army (comitatus) which included two vexillationes (promoti and comites) and three legions (lanciarii, ioviani and herculiani), but the bulk of the equites illyriciani were distributed along the eastern frontiers, and never quite regained their former status.

  Modern reconstruction with 3rd-century equipment. The man on the left is wearing a panoply of fine bronze scales based on the Battle of Ebenezer fresco from Dura Europos in Syria, Similar hooded armour is depicted in the 4th-century Vergilus Vaticanus manuscript, and may have been worn in the eastern frontier regions. The man on the right is wearing more conventional equipment, representative of western cavalry units. (Author’s photo)

  Reorganisation in the 4th century

  The 4th century saw a complete reorganisation of the army, Constantine enlarged the comitatus to include five cavalry vexillationes, five legions and ten new small infantry units called auxilia. The comitatus was were given higher status and privileges than the static frontier forces. In keeping with a trend that had been established by Gallienus in the mid-3rd century and reflecting the increasing importance of their role, the cavalry were ranked as senior to the legions and auxilia, Constantine also disbanded the Praetorian Guard and replaced it with the scholae an all-cavalry force which included units of scutarii and gentiles.

  A single centralised field army could not, however, cope with the frequent emergencies that erupted simultaneously at various points throughout the Empire, Constantine’s successors, therefore, increased and divided up the comitatus to form several regional field armies (comitatenses) to act as reserves in Gaul, Illyricum, Thrace and the east, and gave a new designation (palatini) to the units of the emperor's central field army. Before long, units of comitatenses and palatini became mixed in the same armies, although the palatini continued to have higher status.

  At some point the field army was split between the eastern and western halves of the Empire, This probably occurred in 365, when the Empire was divided between Valentinian and Valens, Many units were divided in two, keeping their original names but adding the designation seniores or iuniores to distinguish between them. It is quite possible that the two halves of a unit were not each recruited back up to their former strength but remained at a strength of about 300 a unit size which carried through into Byzantine times.

  We have a fairly good idea of how the army was organised from the Notitia Dignitatum, a contemporary document which lists all units at the end of the 4th century for the west and the beginning of the 5th century for the east. Several different types of cavalry are listed in this document, and in many cases we can deduce their role and equipment from the unit name. Units of mauri, dalmatae and cetrati were probably light, fast moving javelin-armed skirmishers. The many equites sagittarii, or horse archers, were probably also light cavalry, although some, such as the sagittarii Clibanarii, would have been heavily equipped. Fully armoured lancers, modelled on Sarmatian, Parthian and Palmyran lancers, also formed part of the 4th-century army and were called catafractarii or Clibanarii.
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br />   Captured Sarmatian arms and equipment from the base of Trajan's Column. From the 2nd century onwards the Sarmatians heavily influenced the development and equipment of Roman Cavalry. (Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Rome)

  The majority of cavalry, however, were probably little different from the auxiliary cavalry of the earlier Empire, and were trained and equipped for close combat and for skirmishing from a distance with javelins. Such conventional heavy cavalry probably included units styled as promoti, scutarii, stablesiani, armigeri, brachiati and cornuti as well as those bearing Germanic or Gallic tribal names or named after reigning emperors. A few senior cavalry units were Comites rather than equites, and some of these were further distinguished by a descriptive name (Comites Alani or Comites Clibanarii, for example); the title was probably honorific.

  All of these cavalry types could be found in the static frontier forces (limitanei and ripenses) as well as in the field armies, Some were the descendants of the old auxiliary alae; others included illyriciani, conventional equites, catafractarii and sagittarii. These were further supplemented by ‘native' cavalry or equites indigenae, of which both sagittarii and promoti are recorded on the eastern frontier. Elsewhere, particularly on the Danube frontier, could be found units called cunei equitum, who may also have been semi-irregular, locally recruited cavalry.

  Armies of the warlords

  The aftermath of the disastrous Persian and Gothic campaigns of 363 and 378 respectively saw another change in the organisation of the Roman army. Heavy losses resulted in the transfer of many units of limitanei to the comitatus (where they were given the title of pseudocomitatenses). This probably resulted in a weakening of the frontier defences as well as a degradation in the quality of the field army. Roman commanders turned more and more to bands of barbarians to fill the ranks of their mobile field forces. Theodosius, for example, is reported to have employed 20,000 Goths at the battle of Figidus in AD 394, These barbarian allies (foederati) were given land to settle in return for military service; however, they fought together under their own leaders and were only nominally Romanised.

  Increasingly, as the reliability of the regular field armies decreased, military commanders and even wealthy individuals began to hire bands of private retainers or bucellarii The great warlords of the 5th century, such as Stilicho, Aetius and Aspar, all maintained large personal followings and came to rely on them almost exclusively. In AD 444 Valerian, a wealthy magnate in the east, is recorded as overpowering the local governor with a ‘great horde of barbarians’, and in the 6th century Belisarius employed as many as 7,000 bucellarii. Attempts were made to limit such private armies, including a law of AD 476 which made it illegal for individuals to maintain ‘gangs of armed slaves, bucellarii or Isaurians’. However, it seems that the practice remained fairly common.

  By the 6th century the bucellarii had been institutionalised and Roman field armies had evolved into large followings of mounted warriors who owed allegiance to powerful warlords - direct ancestors of the feudal host The old comitatenses were reduced, like the limitanei to static garrisons, and the cavalry had become the arm of decision. Weapons too had changed: the typical Roman cavalryman now carried a bow as his principal weapon (probably as a result of Hunnic and Persian influences). Shock cavalry was provided primarily by the German foederati, who by the mid-6th century had evolved into regular units of lancers.

  On campaign cavalrymen played an important role scouting ahead of the army and screening its movements. When deployed on such duties, equipment and armour would he kept to a minimum for speed and stealth, (Arch of Constantine, Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Rome)

  CHRONOLOGY

  Hadrian's Wall, the most famous of Rome's frontier defences. The frontier zones were manned by static garrison troops known as limitanei. (English Heritage)

  Major battles in bold

  AD 236—268 Franks, Alamanni and Goths overrun Rhine and Danube frontiers.

  251 Roman army defeated by Goths at Forum Terebronii.

  258—261 Persian War. Romans defeated at Edessa. Emperor Valerian captured.

  268—280 Illyrian emperors restore the frontiers.

  271—273 Reign of Diocletian. Complete reorganisation of Imperial administration and military system.

  312 Constantine defeats Maxentius at Milvian Bridge.

  313 Edict of Milan brings recognition for Christianity.

  324—337 Constantine sole Emperor. Construction of new capital at Byzantium (Constantinople).

  337—350 Inconclusive war with Persia.

  351 Constantius’ Eastern army defeats the Western troops of the usurper Magnentius at Mursa.

  355—360 Julian’s successful campaign against the Franks and Alamanni in Gaul.

  357 Roman victory over the Alamanni at Strasbourg.

  362—364 Failed campaign against the Persians.

  368—369 ‘Barbarian Conspiracy’ ofSaxons, Picts and Scots overrun Britain. Order restored by Theodosius.

  378 East Roman army destroyed by Goths at Adrianople. Emperor Valens killed.

  379—395 Reign of Theodosius. Some semblance of order restored.

  394 Theodosius’ Eastern army, including 20,000 Goths, defeats the Western army of Arbogast at Frigid River.

  401—404 Inconclusive campaign of Stilicho against Alaric.

  405—406 Vast German migrationled by Radagaisus defeated by Stilicho at Florence.

  406—410 Vandals, Suevi, Alans and Burgundians cross the frozen Rhine and overrun Gaul and Spain.

  407 Roman troops leave Britain.

  410 Alaric sacks Rome.

  419 Visigoths establish independent kingdom in southern Gaul.

  421—422 Moderately successful campaign against Persia.

  429 Vandals and Alans cross from Spain into Africa.

  431 Failed joint East-West Roman campaign against Vandals in Africa.

  433—45 Campaigns of Aetius against Visigoths, Franks and Burgundians in Gaul.

  441—443 Hun invasion of the East. Romans defeated in the Chersonese Peninsula, Balkans ravaged. Romans agree to pay tribute.

  447 Second Hunnic invasion of the East bought off by the Romans.

  451 Hun invasion of the West checked by Aetius at Châlons.

  455 The Vandals sack Rome.

  476 Italian field army overthrows Emperor Romulus Augustulus. End of Western Empire.

  492—496 Isaurian War. Primarily Gothic army under Anastasius defeats Isaurian partisans of Longinus.

  507—512 Anastasius fortifies the frontiers against the Persians and Slavs.

  524—531 Justinian’s first war with Persia. Ends inconclusively.

  532 Nika riots in Constantinople. 30,000 people die before order restored.

  533—534 East Romans under Belisarius recover Africa from the Vandals.

  534—554 Gothic War. A devastated Italy is restored to the Empire.

  539—562 Justinian’s second Persian War. Typically inconclusive.

  Sarmatian cataphracts from Trajan’s Column, These formed the model for the equites catafractarii introduced into the Roman army in the 2nd century, probably recruited from Sarmatian settlers in Gaul. The skintight suits of scale armour are a flight of fancy on the part of the artist. (Deutsches Archäologisches Institute Rome)

  CONDITIONS OF SERVICE

  Recruitment

  In many ways recruitment was similar to that of the infantry. The military profession, like others, was partly hereditary: sons of soldiers and veterans, including officers, were expected serve unless physically unfit. There were some volunteers, particularly from Germans living outside the Empire, and sometimes bounties were offered to attract them. How-ever, military service was very unpopular, and hereditary and voluntary enlistment were not enough to fill the ranks, so many soldiers were levied by conscription.

  As the elite of the army, the cavalry were better paid, had higher social status and led a better life than the infantry, and as such would have had the pick of recruits. Accor
ding to the 5th-century writer Flavius Vegetius Renatus, promotion to the cavalry was through the infantry ranks, but other methods of entry were also possible. Laws from AD 326 state that ‘Sons of veteran cavalrymen can go straight into the cavalry if they have a horse’ and 'If any son of a veteran shall have two horses, or a slave and a horse, he shall serve in the rank of circitor [the lowest non-commissioned rank]’. Presumably other recruits of higher social standing or with riding experience might also have been able to get into the cavalry without being sons of veterans. Barbarian recruits from areas noted for their horsemanship, or who brought their own horses, were probably also considered.

  A cavalry charge depicted on the Arch of Constantine. Most cavalry actions consisted of fluid but controlled hit and run tactics. The soldiers would ride up to their opponents hoping to break their nerve. If this failed, they would wheel sharply away to the right, showering the enemy with missiles, and withdraw to beyond bow range to try again. (Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Rome)

  A Equites illyriciani (3rd century AD)

  This man represents one of the Illyrian soldiers, recruited from the frontier regions of the Balkans, who formed the core of the central cavalry reserve of the 3rd century. He is essentially a light cavalryman, and would perform traditional tasks such as patrolling, scouting and screening.

  The soldier's main defensive equipment was his shield, which bore a unit design. The shield patterns depicted in the Notitia Dignitatum (written more than a century later) show those of the equities dalmatae with similar box-like symbols, so this may have been an earlier version. Both round and oval shields were carried. This oval version is based on 3rd-century remains found at Dura Europos. It is about 1.1 m high and 90 cm wide, constructed of 1 cm thick wood planks, covered and bound with leather (A1a). A hollow iron boss, which could also be made of bronze, covers the central hand grip, and the rear of the shield is elaborately painted (A1b), probably with an individual pattern rather than an official unit design. Carrying the shield and reins in the same hand would have required considerable skill.